Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text (4th Edition)

Description

Since the publication of the third edition of Aquatic Pollution in 2000, there have been many major developments within the field in terms of research, regulations, and also large-scale catastrophes that have had a significant impact on the aquatic environment; the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and the Fukushima nuclear disaster have taken their toll, and research on ocean acidification has developed enormously over the last decade. Recognizing, controlling, and mitigating aquatic pollution on a global scale is one of the most important and most difficult challenges facing society today.

Fully updated to reflect current understanding and discussing these major recent developments, this fourth edition of Aquatic Pollution covers every aspect of pollution associated with urban runoff, acid rain, sewage disposal, pesticides, oil spills, nutrient loading, and more. Case studies of major pollution sites, all original to this new edition, help to illustrate points made in general discussion.

Offering unprecedented depth of coverage, and discussing both fresh and sea water environments, this unique text provides a key teaching and learning tool for courses in environmental science, zoology, oceanography, biology, and civil or sanitary engineering, as well as a vital book for government policy makers. It is also an excellent primer for policymakers and activists focused on environmental issues.

Table of Contents

1. Preface xv
2. Fundamental Concepts 1
   1. Simple Food Chain Theory 1
   2. Ecological Pyramids 3
   3. Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6
   4. Food Chain Magnification 9
   5. Food Webs 10
   6. Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12
   7. Questions 13
   8. References 15
3. Photosynthesis 17
   1. Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18
   2. Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 22
   3. Nutrient Enrichment Experiments 26
   4. Long Island Bays 30
   5. Canadian Experimental Lakes 31
   6. Nitrogen versus Phosphorus Limitation 33
   7. Questions 37
   8. References 38
4. Physical Factors Affecting Production 43
   1. Physical Properties of Water 43
   2. Water Column Stability and Overturning 45
   3. The Importance of Overturning 48
   4. Seasonal Production Cycles 49
   5. Trophic Status 50
   6. Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51
   7. Estuaries: A Special Case 52
   8. Chesapeake Bay 55
   9. The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64
   10. Questions 67
   11. References 68
   12. Contents
5. Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71
   1. Case Study 1: Lake Washington 72
   2. History of Eutrophication 73
   3. Effects of Sewage Diversion 76
   4. Nutrient Limitation 79
   5. Oxygen Depletion 80
   6. Water Clarity 83
   7. Cyanobacteria 84
   8. Theoretical Predictions 85
   9. Case Study 2: Lake Erie 88
   10. The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land‐Use Modifications 89
   11. The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90
   12. The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93
   13. The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94
   14. Sediment in Land Runoff 96
   15. Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 96
   16. Remedial Efforts 98
   17. Toxic Substances 98
   18. Eutrophication 99
   19. Prospects for Lake Erie 105
   20. Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay 114
   21. Physical Setting 114
   22. The Coral Reefs 116
   23. Urbanization of the Watershed 116
   24. Changes in Land Runoff 116
   25. Sewage Disposal 119
   26. Effects of Sewage Disposal 120
   27. Response to Sewage Diversion 121
   28. Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 123
   29. Questions 126
   30. References 128
6. Nonpoint Source Pollution 133
   1. Definitions 133
   2. Composition of Land Runoff 134
   3. Types of Sewer Systems 136
   4. Corrective Measures 138
   5. Use of Settling Basins 138
   6. Ground Recharge Basins 139
   7. Storage in Underflow Tunnels or Tanks 140
   8. Minimizing Runoff 141
   9. Summary 143
   10. A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida 143
   11. Correctives 150
   12. Questions 155
   13. References 156
7. Sewage Treatment 159
   1. Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment 159
   2. Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 161
   3. Trickling Filters 161
   4. Activated Sludge 162
   5. Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatment 163
   6. The Anaerobic Digester 164
   7. Tertiary Treatment 165
   8. Phosphorus Removal 166
   9. Nitrogen Removal 167
   10. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 168
   11. Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 169
   12. Land Application of Sewage 170
   13. Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 172
   14. Limiting Factors 179
   15. Use of Sewage Sludge 180
   16. Unconventional Sewage Treatment 183
   17. Detergent Phosphates 185
   18. Questions 188
   19. References 190
8. Pathogens in Natural Waters 195
   1. Sources of Pathogens 197
   2. Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 198
   3. Bacterial Pathogens 199
   4. Protozoan Pathogens 206
   5. Viral Pathogens 208
   6. Helminths 212
   7. Tests for Pathogens 213
   8. Treatment of Public Water Supplies 219
   9. Removal of Suspended Solids 219
   10. Filtration 219
   11. Chlorination 220
   12. Alternatives to Chlorination 221
   13. Impact of Treatment 222
   14. Questions 222
   15. References 224
9. Toxicology 229
   1. The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 229
   2. Kinds of Toxicity 231
   3. Sublethal Effects 231
   4. Reproduction 232
   5. Development and Growth 234
   6. Behavior 237
   7. Determination of Toxicity 237
   8. Acute Toxicity Determination 238
   9. Chronic Toxicity Determination 239
   10. Median Survival Times 240
   11. Incipient Lethal Levels 241
   12. Sublethal Effects 242
   13. Water Quality Standards 243
   14. Acute Effects 243
   15. Chronic Toxicity 244
   16. Acute/Chronic Ratios 245
   17. Toxicity to Plants 247
   18. The Two-Number Criterion 247
   19. Complicating Factors 248
   20. Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 248
   21. Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 250
   22. Conditioning and Acclimation 252
   23. Interactions between Toxic Substances 253
   24. Public Health 257
   25. Noncarcinogenic Effects 257
   26. Application to Cadmium 260
   27. Carcinogenic Effects 262
   28. Protection of Wildlife 264
   29. Commentary 264
   30. Questions 265
   31. References 268
10. Industrial Pollution 273
    1. The Oxygen Sag 273
    2. Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 276
    3. The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 279
    4. Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 282
    5. Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 282
    6. Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 283
    7. Survey of Water Pollution Problems 285
    8. Response to the EPA Survey 286
    9. Present Status of the Industry 288
    10. The Pulp and Paper Industry 290
    11. Steps in the Production of Paper 292
    12. Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 295
    13. Suspended Solids 296
    14. Dissolved Organics 298
    15. Toxic Substances 299
    16. Wastewater Treatment 300
    17. A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 301
    18. Commentary 304
    19. Questions 306
    20. References 307
11. Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 311
    1. Classification of Pesticides 313
    2. Mode of Action 315
    3. Pesticide Use 316
    4. Public Health 316
    5. Use of DDT to Control Malaria 316
    6. Agriculture 319
    7. Forestry 321
    8. Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 322
    9. Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 322
    10. DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 323
    11. Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use 324
    12. The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 325
    13. DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 326
    14. DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 328
    15. DDT Causes Cancer 330
    16. Implications 331
    17. Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 332
    18. Pesticide Effects on Birds 336
    19. Field Observations 337
    20. Laboratory Studies 339
    21. Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 342
    22. Pest Resistance 343
    23. Mechanisms of Resistance 344
    24. The Cost of Pest Resistance 344
    25. Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 345
    26. Biological Control 345
    27. Natural Predators and Parasites 345
    28. Pathogens and Natural Toxins 346
    29. Genetic Control 347
    30. Resistant Plants 347
    31. Sterile Males 348
    32. Chemical Control 350
    33. Integrated Pest Management 351
    34. Commentary 353
    35. EPA Hearings, 13 January, 1972. Afternoon Session 355
    36. Persistent Organic Pollutants 359
    37. Polychlorinated Biphenyls 359
    38. Problems with PCBs 361
    39. Persistence of PCBs 363
    40. Questions 365
    41. References 367
12. Thermal Pollution and Power Plants 375
    1. Power Plant Design 376
    2. Water Quality Criteria 377
    3. Cooling Water System Characteristics 378
    4. Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 379
    5. Sublethal Effects 381
    6. Commentary 383
    7. A Case Study – The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 383
    8. The Study Area 383
    9. The Power Plant 385
    10. Effects on Biota 386
    11. Modifications 388
    12. Commentary 389
    13. Correctives 389
    14. Cooling Canals 390
    15. Cooling Towers 390
    16. Problems 390
    17. Internal Plant Kills 392
    18. Screen Impingements 392
    19. Inner Plant Kills 395
    20. Commentary 397
    21. Correctives 398
    22. Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 400
    23. Cogeneration Power Plants 400
    24. Agriculture 402
    25. Aquaculture 403
    26. Other Uses 406
    27. Questions 407
    28. References 408
13. Metals 413
    1. The Question of Biological Magnification 416
    2. Case Studies 417
    3. Mercury 418
    4. Production and Uses 418
    5. Fluxes to the Environment 422
    6. Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 426
    7. Minamata Bay: A Case Study 432
    8. Seafood Consumption 438
    9. Cadmium 439
    10. Distribution, Production, and Uses 439
    11. Emissions to the Environment 442
    12. Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445
    13. Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445
    14. Toxicity 445
    15. Itai‐Itai Disease: A Case Study 447
    16. Correctives and Prospects for the Future 451
    17. Lead 453
    18. Production and Use 453
    19. Emissions 457
    20. Toxicology 462
    21. Commentary 465
    22. Questions 469
    23. References 471
14. Oil Pollution 479
    1. Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 480
    2. Natural Sources 480
    3. Marine Seeps 480
    4. Anthropogenic Sources 481
    5. Platforms 481
    6. Atmospheric Deposition 482
    7. Produced Waters 482
    8. Pipeline Spills 482
    9. Tanker Spills 482
    10. Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 483
    11. Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 485
    12. Atmospheric Deposition (From Tankers) 485
    13. Land‐Based Runoff 485
    14. Recreational Marine Vessels 485
    15. Spills (Non‐tankers) 485
    16. Operational Discharges (Vessels >100 GT) 486
    17. Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 486
    18. Atmospheric Deposition 486
    19. Aircraft Dumping 486
    20. Commentary 486
    21. The Genesis of Oil 488
    22. Sedimentation 488
    23. Metamorphosis 489
    24. Migration 489
    25. What Is Oil? 490
    26. Alkanes: Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 490
    27. Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 491
    28. Aromatics 491
    29. Toxicology 493
    30. Oiling and Ingestion 493
    31. Weathering 496
    32. Lethal and Sublethal Effects 498
    33. Human Health 500
    34. Case Studies 501
    35. Exxon Valdez 501
    36. The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 501
    37. Cleanup 502
    38. Fate of Spilled Oil 503
    39. Effects on Organisms 503
    40. Summary 507
    41. Deepwater Horizon 508
    42. Buzzards Bay 510
    43. Summary 513
    44. Correctives 514
    45. Prevention 514
    46. Cleanup 515
    47. Offloading 515
    48. Burning 516
    49. Chemical Dispersal 516
    50. Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 517
    51. Sinking 517
    52. Bioremediation 518
    53. Summary 519
    54. Oil Fingerprinting 520
    55. Commentary 522
    56. Questions 523
    57. References 524
15. Radioactivity 529
    1. Physical Background 529
    2. Radiation Toxicology 532
    3. The No Threshold and Linear Dose–Response Hypotheses 534
    4. Health Effect Estimates 536
    5. Current Levels of Exposure 538
    6. Importance of Certain Radionuclides 541
    7. Effects on Aquatic Systems 542
    8. Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 544
    9. Nuclear Fusion 550
    10. Radiation Releases by Power Plants 552
    11. Routine Radionuclide Releases 553
    12. Accidents 556
    13. The NRX Accident 556
    14. Windscale 557
    15. The SL‐1 Incident 559
    16. The Fermi Reactor Accident 560
    17. The Three Mile Island Incident 562
    18. Chernobyl 563
    19. Fukushima Daiichi 565
    20. Summary 565
    21. Waste Disposal 569
    22. Types of Radioactive Waste 569
    23. History of Disposal 569
    24. The Search for Long‐Term Disposal Sites 573
    25. Transmutation 576
    26. Uranium Mine Wastes 576
    27. Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 579
    28. Commentary 581
    29. Questions 582
    30. References 584
16. Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 589
    1. Acid Deposition 589
    2. Acid Rain 590
    3. History of the Acid Deposition Problem 591
    4. Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 594
    5. Acid Deposition Toxicology 595
    6. Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 598
    7. Correctives 600
    8. SOx Removal 601
    9. Pretreatment 601
    10. Conversion 602
    11. Coal Gasification 602
    12. Coal Liquefaction 602
    13. Methanol Production 602
    14. Combustion 603
    15. Fluidized Bed Combustion 603
    16. Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 603
    17. Post‐combustion 603
    18. Stack Gas Scrubbing 603
    19. Electron Beam Method 604
    20. NOx Removal 604
    21. Pretreatment and Conversion 604
    22. Combustion 604
    23. Post‐combustion 605
    24. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 605
    25. Comments 605
    26. Legal Aspects 606
    27. A Case Study: The Netherlands 608
    28. Commentary 610
    29. Ocean Acidification 610
    30. Solutions 617
    31. Questions 618
    32. References 618
17. Groundwater Pollution 623
    1. Reliance on Groundwater 623
    2. General Aquifer Information 624
    3. Overdrafting 625
    4. The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 627
    5. Septic Tanks 627
    6. Saltwater Contamination 627
    7. Fracking 628
    8. Sewage 628
    9. Mining Activities 629
    10. Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 629
    11. Toxic Chemicals 629
    12. Illegal Disposal 632
    13. Magnitude of the Problem 634
    14. A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 636
    15. Legal Considerations 641
    16. RCRA 641
    17. SDWA 642
    18. CWA 643
    19. CERCLA 644
    20. Other Legislation 646
    21. Enforcement 647
    22. Correctives 648
    23. Cleanup 648
    24. Prevention 650
    25. The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 653
    26. Questions 654
    27. References 655
18. Plastics in the Sea 659
    1. The Nature of the Problem 659
    2. Effects 661
    3. Aesthetics 661
    4. Ingestion 662
    5. Entanglement 664
    6. Ghost Fishing 665
    7. Other Causes of Entanglement 667
    8. Damage to Vessels 668
    9. Correctives 668
    10. MARPOL Annex V 668
    11. Other Legislation 671
    12. Degradable Plastic 673
    13. Solutions Through Technology 673
    14. Education 674
    15. Questions 675
    16. References 676
    17. Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 681
    18. References 683
    19. Aquatic Pollution 685
    20. Answers to Questions 685
    21. References 705
19. Glossary 707
20. Index 733

Author Biography

Edward Laws is a professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences in the College of the Coast & Environment at Louisiana State University and a founding team member and investigator in the Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. In addition to the earlier editions of Aquatic Pollution, he is the author of El Nino and the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery (1996) and Mathematical Methods for Oceanographers (Wiley, 1997).